The Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla

The Three Kingdoms period is the era name you will hear most often in Korea. It refers to the period of Korean history in which Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla stood alongside one another.

One fact is worth carrying into a museum with you: the three became something you could reasonably call "the Three Kingdoms" later than most visitors assume. That fact also explains why the remains of this era are concentrated in Gyeongju and thin almost everywhere else.

At a glance

When the period starts
Usually taken from the fourth century, as the three completed their state structures, through to Silla's unification.
The marker is a law code
Promulgating a code is read as the point a state was complete: Sosurim of Goguryeo, Geunchogo of Baekje, Beopheung of Silla.
Into the 3rd century there were no 'Three Kingdoms'
Baekje and Silla were still only two of the many small states of the Samhan.
It ends in 660 and 668
Silla allied with Tang and brought down Baekje, then Goguryeo.

When did three kingdoms actually stand side by side?

The encyclopedia frames the period's span like this: it generally means the time from the fourth century, as the three completed the structures of an ancient state, through to Silla's unification — though some accounts include the formation of the three states as well.

Those are two different moments. State formation is placed around the reigns of Taejo of Goguryeo in the first century, Goi of Baekje in the third, and Naemul of Silla in the fourth. Completion as centralised territorial states comes later: Sosurim of Goguryeo and Geunchogo of Baekje in the fourth century, and Beopheung of Silla in the sixth.

The test used for that judgement is the promulgation of a law code — issuing one is read as marking the completion of an ancient state. That is why stelae and administrative objects get so much room in the galleries.

Not the Chinese Three Kingdoms — and for a while, not three kingdoms at all

First, the common confusion: Korea's Three Kingdoms period has nothing to do with China's Three Kingdoms. More importantly, the early centuries were not a standoff between three comparable powers.

The Samguk Sagi describes each founder as expanding rapidly and building institutions almost immediately, but that is generally regarded as later embellishment. Chinese histories from the same period — the Hou Hanshu and the Sanguozhi — show that into the third century the three did not dominate their neighbours, and Baekje and Silla were still only two among the many small states of the Samhan. It is hard to say three kingdoms stood together before the third century.

Archaeology gives the earlier stretch its own name. The first century BC to the third century AD is called the Proto-Three Kingdoms period, set apart from the Three Kingdoms period from the fourth century onward, when iron was in wide use.

This has a practical consequence for a visit. Almost everything presented as a Three Kingdoms site dates from the fourth century or later; what came before survives as burials and pottery.

How the three kingdoms ended

The end comes in the middle of the seventh century.

Having organised themselves, the three collided as each expanded. Goguryeo's push south and Baekje's push north set them against each other, and Silla — the late developer — tried to take the Han River basin in the gap, securing its own route to China.

Then came the decisive turn. Conflict between Tang and Goguryeo produced an alignment in which Goguryeo and Baekje combined and Silla was isolated, so Silla concentrated on its diplomacy with Tang and, as the allied Silla–Tang army, brought down Baekje and Goguryeo and unified the three. Baekje fell in 660; Goguryeo lasted until 668.

The unification came at a price. The encyclopedia records that the appearance of Tang did considerable damage to that unification, with the result that Liaodong — an important Goguryeo region — was handed over to them. And afterwards the Northern and Southern States period of Balhae and Silla begins.

That is where Unified Silla picks the story up.

What you can actually see — and why it is all in Gyeongju

How much survives differs enormously between the three.

Goguryeo's heartland lies mostly in North Korea and northeastern China and cannot be visited from South Korea. Baekje's later capitals were around Gongju, Buyeo and Iksan. Silla's capital, Gyeongju, survives as an entire city.

So on a real itinerary the Three Kingdoms period is the era you meet in Gyeongju. Nowhere else are royal tombs, an observatory and palace grounds within walking distance of each other. In Seoul, the Prehistory and Ancient History Gallery of the National Museum of Korea is the only place the three can be seen side by side.

If Gyeongju allows only one stop, make it Daereungwon. It conveys the scale of the Silla state by size rather than by explanation, so you understand it before you have read a single sign.

Where to meet the Three Kingdoms

Frequently asked questions

What dates does the Three Kingdoms period cover?

Generally from the fourth century, as the three completed the structures of an ancient state, through to Silla's unification. Some accounts extend it back to the formation of the three states.

Is this related to China's Three Kingdoms?

No — different countries, different periods. The Chinese history Sanguozhi is, however, cited as a source for conditions on the Korean peninsula up to the third century.

Were Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla equals from the start?

No. The Hou Hanshu and Sanguozhi show that into the third century the three did not dominate their neighbours, and Baekje and Silla were still only two among the many small states of the Samhan.

How were the Three Kingdoms unified?

Conflict between Tang and Goguryeo pushed Goguryeo and Baekje together and left Silla isolated, so Silla concentrated on Tang diplomacy and, as the joint Silla–Tang army, brought down Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668.

Can I visit Goguryeo sites in Korea?

Goguryeo's heartland is mostly in North Korea and northeastern China, so its sites cannot be visited from South Korea. You meet Goguryeo through objects in the National Museum of Korea's Goguryeo room.